• Original research article

    Soil-dependent effects of biochar feedstock and application rate on inorganic nitrogen dynamics under urea fertilization in volcanic ash soils: a laboratory incubation study
    Soe Sandar Aung, Hosung Lee, Won-Pyo Park
    Purpose: Biochar–urea co-application can modify soil nitrogen (N) dynamics, but responses may vary with biochar feedstock, application rate, and soil properties. A … + READ MORE
    Purpose: Biochar–urea co-application can modify soil nitrogen (N) dynamics, but responses may vary with biochar feedstock, application rate, and soil properties. A laboratory incubation experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of biochar feedstock and application rate on inorganic N dynamics under urea fertilization (200 mg N kg-1) in three Jeju volcanic ash soils differing in soil organic matter (SOM) content and associated physicochemical properties. Methods: Two plant-residue biochars derived from Satsuma mandarin pruning branches (CB) and garlic stalks (BG) and one manure biochar derived from chicken manure (CMB) were applied at 0.2%, 0.4%, and 0.8% (w/w) to three soils with SOM contents of 12, 66, and 134 g kg-1 (LSOM, MSOM, and HSOM, respectively). First-order kinetic modeling was used to estimate the apparent net inorganic N accumulation potential (N0) and apparent rate constant (k), while fixed-interval regression was used to estimate net NH4+-N disappearance and net NO3‒-N production rates. Results: The estimated N0 and k values differed among the three soils and varied with biochar feedstock and application rate. Relative to the urea-only treatment, most biochar treatments increased N0 in LSOM and HSOM, whereas all biochar treatments reduced N0 in MSOM. In LSOM, 0.8% CB and 0.8% GB showed lower N0 values than the urea-only treatment, while the lowest N0 in HSOM was observed under 0.2% CMB. The k values also varied among soils and treatments, indicating differences in the rate at which apparent net inorganic N accumulation approached N0. Fixed-interval analyses showed that net NH4+-N disappearance was more responsive to biochar treatments than net NO3‒-N production. The distinct responses of CMB may partly reflect its substantially higher water-extractable inorganic N content compared with the plant-residue biochars. Conclusions: Overall, inorganic N dynamics under urea fertilization differed markedly among the three Jeju volcanic ash soils, which varied in SOM content and associated physicochemical properties. Biochar–urea co-application modified net NH4+-N disappearance, net NO3‒-N production, and apparent net inorganic N accumulation, but the magnitude and direction of these responses varied with biochar feedstock, application rate, and soil physicochemical properties. Relative changes in apparent net inorganic N accumulation potential under biochar–urea co-application across three soil organic matter levels. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Original research article

    Effects of nitrogen fertigation and irrigation management on onion (Allium cepa L.) growth and bulb yield under open-field conditions
    Periyasamy Rathinapriya, Tae-Jun Lim
    Purpose: Efficient nitrogen (N) and water management are essential for sustainable onion (Allium cepa L.) production, particularly under changing climatic conditions … + READ MORE
    Purpose: Efficient nitrogen (N) and water management are essential for sustainable onion (Allium cepa L.) production, particularly under changing climatic conditions and resource limitations. This study investigated the effects of N fertilization and irrigation levels on soil water status, soil inorganic N dynamics, plant growth, and bulb yield of onion under open-field conditions. Methods: A split-plot field experiment was conducted during the 2023 - 2024 growing season using four N fertilization levels (0N, 1/3N, 2/3N, and 1N) and four irrigation levels (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of crop water requirement). Irrigation scheduling was based on solar radiation and rainfall, and irrigation was applied through a drip fertigation system. Soil water matric potential, soil inorganic N, plant growth, and bulb yield were determined. Results: Soil water matric potential maintained at adequate moisture levels across treatments throughout the growing season. N fertigation significantly increased soil inorganic N availability, vegetative growth, biomass accumulation, bulb development, and yield, whereas irrigation had limited overall effects under the adequate soil moisture conditions. Soil inorganic N gradually declined during crop growth, indicating effective plant uptake without excessive residual accumulation. Onion yield increased progressively with increasing N application, reaching a maximum of 8271.8 kg 10a-1 under the 1N treatment. Two-way ANOVA indicated that N fertigation was the primary factor regulating onion growth and productivity under the experimental conditions. Conclusions: These findings suggest that N availability is the primary factor governing onion productivity under adequate soil moisture conditions. Solar radiation-based irrigation management effectively maintained favorable soil moisture conditions and minimized water stress throughout the growing season. This integrated irrigation and N fertigation management provides a climate-adaptive and resource-efficient strategy for sustainable onion production. Schematic illustration of N fertigation and irrigation mangaement in open-field onion cultivation, showing their effects on plant growth and bulb yield. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Original research article

    Influence of pre-crops on soil quality and seed yield of a post-crop, mungbean at double cropping systems in the southern paddy field
    Seo Young Oh, Tae Hee Kim, Sung Hoon Kim, Hyunggon Mang, Jongho Park
    Purpose: This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different cropping systems on soil properties and seed yield of mungbean ( … + READ MORE
    Purpose: This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different cropping systems on soil properties and seed yield of mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) cultivated as a post-crop in the southern paddy fields.Methods: The experiment was carried out for two years in the paddy field located in Miryang, Korea, using four double cropping systems: wheat–mungbean, mungbean–mungbean, waxy maize–mungbean, and potato–mungbean. Mungbean was cultivated as a late-summer post-crop after harvesting each pre-crop, and soil physicochemical properties as well as growth and yield characteristics of mungbean were investigated.Results: Before the cropping systems were established, the paddy soil showed high bulk density and low porosity. However, after the double-cropping systems were applied, soil porosity increased while bulk density decreased, indicating improved soil physical properties. Soil pH in the wheat–mungbean system remained within the optimum range for mungbean cultivation (pH 6.5–7.0), and exchangeable cation contents were maintained at appropriate levels. Growth characteristics of mungbean differed among cropping systems, and the wheat–mungbean system showed higher branch number, pod dry weight, and seed dry weight than the other systems. Seed yield and test weight were also highest in the wheat–mungbean system, whereas the waxy maize–mungbean system showed the lowest yield. In contrast, continuous mungbean cultivation in the mungbean–mungbean system resulted in reduced first pod height, pod number, and seed yield, suggesting the occurrence of continuous cropping injury during two years. Conclusions: These results indicate that the wheat–mungbean double-cropping system could be an effective cropping practice for improving soil properties and ensuring stable mungbean production in southern paddy fields. Soil properties and the growth of pre-crops (wheat, mungbean, waxy maize, and potato) and post-crop (mungbean) applied under different cropping systems in the paddy fields. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Original research article

    Effects of deep fertilization placement on N2O emissions, nitrogen leaching and soybean productivity
    Seong Min Moon, Dong Hyeok Gong, Jin Hee Seo, Man Soo Choi, Jong Su Ryu, Min Su Jeong, Yoon Ha Kim, Jong Hwan Park, Hyen Chung Chun
    Purpose: Crops growth in upland fields converted from previously used as rice paddies is often limited by poor drainage, which decreases nitrogen … + READ MORE
    Purpose: Crops growth in upland fields converted from previously used as rice paddies is often limited by poor drainage, which decreases nitrogen (N) fertilizer use efficiency due to increased nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Deep fertilizer placement is well established as a strategy to promote root growth and yield and reduce N2Oemissions. However, its effects on paddy-to-upland converted soils remain unknown. This study investigated the effects of the deep placement of inorganic fertilizer and organic mixtures (compost and biochar) on soybean root development, yield, N leaching, and N2O emissions in paddy-to-upland converted soils. Methods: Soil-plant column experiments with four treatments were established based on placement depth of fertilizer and organic mixture: Surface Inorganic and Surface Organic (SISO); Deep Inorganic (10 cm) and Deep Organic (20 cm) (DIDO), Surface Organic and Deep Inorganic (20 cm) (SODI), and Surface Inorganic and Deep Organic (20 cm) (SIDO). Each treatment had ten replicates, and soybeans were cultivated. During the experiment, N2O emissions and N leaching were measured, and soybean roots and yields were determined at the harvest. Results: Soybean root development was most pronounced in DIDO treatment, which showed significantly greater root length, volume, and surface area than the other treatments, resulting in the greatest soybean growth and yield. Nitrogen leaching amounts did not differ among the treatments. However, N leaching relative rate was greatest in SODI (by 60.4%), while DIDO had smaller one (12%). Cumulative N2O emissions were significantly affected by placement depth, with the greatest emissions in SISO and the smallest in DIDO.Conclusions: These results indicate that placing both organic and inorganic nutrient sources deep in the soil profile enhances root development and yield while simultaneously reducing nitrogen loss and N2O emissions, offering an effective management strategy for soybean cultivation in paddy-converted soils. Effects of the placement depths of organic and inorganic fertilizers on nitrogen losses and soybean performance in converted paddy soil. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Original research article

    Multivariate assessment of long-term soil fertility dynamics and nutrient accumulation and deficiency in Gyeongnam upland soils from 2001 to 2025
    Hee-Jeong Je, Hyeon-Ji Cho, Mi-Jin Lee, Jae-Young Heo, Young Han Lee, Eun-Jin Lee
    Purpose: This study evaluates the long-term trends and nutritional status of upland soils in Gyeongnam Province to provide scientific guidelines for sustainable … + READ MORE
    Purpose: This study evaluates the long-term trends and nutritional status of upland soils in Gyeongnam Province to provide scientific guidelines for sustainable soil management and precise fertilizer application.Methods: Soil samples were collected from the same 170 upland sites at four-year intervals from 2001 to 2025, resulting in seven monitoring periods. Soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter (OM), available P2O5, and exchangeable K, Ca, and Mg were determined. Temporal changes in soil chemical properties and nutrient status were evaluated, and relationships among soil chemical properties were examined using correlation and principal component analyses. Results: Analysis over seven monitoring cycles revealed that while pH, EC, OM, and Mg levels generally remained within optimal ranges, mean levels of P2O5, K, and Ca consistently exceeded recommended thresholds. By 2025, the proportion of soils with excessive nutrient levels had declined; however, deficiencies in OM and Mg were identified in 43% and 46% of the samples, respectively. Notably, the Ca/Mg ratio increased from 4.9 in 2001 to 6.0 in 2025, highlighting an elevated risk of Mg deficiency. Principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated that PC1 (salt accumulation) and PC2 (base saturation) accounted for 63.7% of the total variance, effectively distinguishing soil characteristics across different monitoring years.Conclusions: These results indicate that long-term nutrient accumulation and deficiency patterns have shifted significantly during the monitoring periods. For sustainable upland soil management in the Gyeongnam region, it is essential to focus on balancing the exchangeable cations, specifically Ca, Mg, and K, to mitigate nutrient imbalances. Principal component analysis of chemical properties of upland soils in Gyeongnam Province (n = 1,190). - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Original research article

    Natural rock powder as an alternative potassium fertilizer: evidences from a short-term Chinese cabbage cultivation experiment
    Hyunmin Lee, Taehee Baek, Namhee Yi, Jinhwan Park, Mina Lee, Young A Oh, Dong Ryul Lee, Kwon-Rae Kim
    Purpose: Natural rock powder fertilizer (NRP), primarily composed of potassium (K) feldspar (KAlSi3O8), has attracted attention as a … + READ MORE
    Purpose: Natural rock powder fertilizer (NRP), primarily composed of potassium (K) feldspar (KAlSi3O8), has attracted attention as a mineral-based K source for organic agriculture. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of NRP as an alternative to conventional mineral K fertilizer for Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.) cultivation.Methods: A field experiment was conducted to compare a conventional mineral fertilizer treatment with four different NRP:treatments: two application rates (standard and double rates) and two application modes (micro-particles and foliar application). The chemical properties and nutrient availability of NRP were analyzed, and Chinese cabbage growth, plant nutrient concentrations, and soil chemical properties were evaluated.Results: Fresh weight, head width, head length, and plant K concentrations did not differ among treatments. In particular, the NRP standard-rate treatment showed plant growth and tissue K concentration comparable to the conventional mineral fertilizer treatment, suggesting the potential of NRP as a K source for Chinese cabbage cultivation under the tested soil conditions. In addition, plant calcium (Ca) concentrations were significantly higher in NRP-treated plants, suggesting that NRP may also supplement Ca due to its high soluble Ca contents.Conclusions: These findings demonstrate the potential of NRP as an alternative K source for Chinese cabbage cultivation particularly in organic farming systems. However, further studies are needed to evaluate its long-term effects on K and other mineral nutrition under field conditions. Growth characteristics and plant K concentration of Chinese cabbage under conventional fertilizer and natural rock powder (NRP) treatments. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Original research article

    Long-term effects of no-tillage on maize yield stability, nitrogen use efficiency, and soil chemical properties under green manure application
    Yeomyeong Lee, Yeon Ho Kim, Sung Jun Hong, Sang Min Lee, Ji-Won Kang, Hyun Young Hwang
    Purpose: Green manure and no-tillage are considered sustainable soil management practices for maintaining soil fertility and reducing soil disturbance in upland cropping … + READ MORE
    Purpose: Green manure and no-tillage are considered sustainable soil management practices for maintaining soil fertility and reducing soil disturbance in upland cropping systems. However, their long-term combined effects on maize productivity, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), yield stability, and soil chemical properties remain insufficiently documented. We hypothesized that under green manure application, long-term no-tillage would maintain maize productivity and NUE comparable to tillage, while preserving yield stability and soil chemical properties.Methods: A 10-year field experiment (2015-2024) was conducted to compare three treatments: no fertilizer, green manure with tillage (GM_T), and green manure with no-tillage (GM_NT). Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) was used as green manure, and hairy vetch was incorporated into the soils at the same amount of N annually based on the recommended N rate for maize cultivation. Soil chemical properties and NUE and nitrogen harvest index (NHI) were determined.Results: Maize grain yield varied markedly across years, while the 10-year mean yield was similar between GM_T (8.53 Mg f.w. ha-1) and GM_NT (8.46 Mg f.w. ha-1). Interestingly, GM_NT (5.30 Mg f.w. ha-1) maintained a significantly higher yield than GM_T (1.49 Mg f.w. ha-1) under unfavorable weather conditions in 2023, which was closely associated with the higher sustainability yield index observed in GM_NT (0.438) than in GM_T (0.337). This suggests that no-tillage may contribute to maintaining more stable maize productivity under long-term green manure application. Although NUE showed large annual fluctuations, its 10-year mean was similar between GM_T (25.0%) and GM_NT (24.6%), whereas NHI was higher in GM_NT, indicating that no-tillage did not reduce N utilization and may have altered N allocation toward grain. After 10 years, soil organic matter was lower in GM_NT than in GM_T, probably due to loss of GM from the soil surface. However, most other soil chemical properties were comparable between the two treatments.Conclusions: Long-term no-tillage with green manure application could be a sustainable option to maintain maize productivity, yield stability, and NUE without markedly deteriorating soil chemical properties in maize cropping systems. However, it was cautioned that no tillage may increase loss of GM retained in the soil surface. Annual changes in maize grain yield and 10-year mean yield with sustainability yield index under green manure with tillage and no-tillage. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Original research article

    Optimal application rate and frequency of apple-pruning biochar for crop productivity, soil properties, and nitrous oxide mitigation of sweet potato uplands
    Mi-Jeong Uhm, Hyo-Jung Choi, Na Young Park, Yong Jun Kim, So-Ra Choi
    Purpose: This study evaluated the effects of the application rate and frequency of apple pruning-derived biochar on sweet potato productivity, soil properties, … + READ MORE
    Purpose: This study evaluated the effects of the application rate and frequency of apple pruning-derived biochar on sweet potato productivity, soil properties, and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, with the aim of providing optiaml biochar application strategy that balances agronomic productivity and environmental sustainability. Methods: A field experiment was conducted from 2023 to 2025 in a sandy loam upland field in Iksan, Jeonbuk State, Republic of Korea. Apple pruning-derived biochar produced by pyrolysis at 400°C for 4 h was applied at rates of 100, 200, 400, and 800 kg 10a-1 under annual, biennial, and triennial application regimes. Sweet potato growth, plant nutrient concentrations, and marketable yield, as well as soil physical and chemical properties, and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions were investigated.Results: Biochar application significantly affected soil physical and chemical properties depending on application rate and frequency. Soil bulk density decreased and porosity increased in most treatments, whereas soil organic carbon (SOC) and cation exchange capacity generally increased following biochar application. Most aboveground growth parameters showed marginal responses, although stem diameter (P = 0.0018), SPAD value (P < 0.001), and internode length (P = 0.0213), shoot fresh weight (P = 0.0371) differed among treatments. The highest marketable yield (5,578 kg 10a-1) was observed under the annual application of 400 kg 10a-1, while relatively high yields were also observed under the biennial and triennial applications of 400 kg 10a-1. Lower cumulative N2O emission were observed by biochar applications compared to the control (7.42 kg N2O ha-1), with the lowest value (6.25 kg N2O ha-1) recorded under the annual application at 400 kg 10a-1, representing a 15.8% lower value than the control.Conclusions: This study shows that the annual application of biochar at 400 kg 10a-1 was is an optimal biochar application strategy to achieve multiple benefits of biochar application including marketable yield, soil physical properties, SOC sequestration, and N2O mitigation. These findings provide the biochar application strategy for climate-smart cultivation of sweet potato using apple pruning biomass. Annual biochar application at 400 kg 10a-1 showed the lowest cumulative N2O emission, with a 15.8% lower value than the control. Parameter Mean daily N2O emission (mg N2O m-2 day-1) Cumulative N2O emission (kg N2O ha-1) Global warming potential (kg CO2-eq. ha-1) Reduction (%) Annual (once per year) BC 100 5.20 7.57 2,006 (102) -2.1 BC 200 4.60 6.70 1,774 (90) 9.7 BC 400 4.29 6.25 1,656 (84) 15.8 BC 800 4.34 6.31 1,672 (85) 14.9 Biennial (once every 2 years) BC 100 5.00 7.27 1,927 (98) 2.0 BC 200 4.79 6.97 1,846 (94) 6.0 BC 400 4.59 6.68 1,769 (90) 10.0 BC 800 4.49 6.54 1,732 (88) 11.8 Triennial (once every 3 years) BC 100 5.23 7.61 2,017 (103) -2.6 BC 200 4.92 7.16 1,898 (97) 3.4 BC 400 4.98 7.25 1,922 (98) 2.2 BC 800 4.71 6.86 1,817 (92) 7.5 CON 5.10 7.42 1,965 (100) 0 - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Short communication

    Agronomic evaluation of Tenebrio molitor frass as an organic fertilizer for Chinese cabbage cultivation
    Soo-Young Hong, Dong-Min Kim, Seong-Yu Hong, Hee-Yeon Kim, Su-Jeong Heo, Ki-Sun Kim, Bo-min Kim, Young-seek Seok
    Purpose: As the insect farming industry expands, increasing amounts of insect frass are generated, highlighting the need to evaluate its potential as … + READ MORE
    Purpose: As the insect farming industry expands, increasing amounts of insect frass are generated, highlighting the need to evaluate its potential as a safe and effective fertilizer resource. This study evaluated the physicochemical characteristics, fertilizer value, and agronomic potential of Tenebrio molitor frass as a by-product fertilizer for Chinese cabbage cultivation. Methods: The physicochemical properties, compost maturity, and heavy metal contents of T. molitor frass were analyzed. The effects of T. molitor fee on Chinese cabbage growth, yield, and post-harvest soil chemical properties were evaluated through a field experiment with four treatments: Control (no organic amendment), Compost, Frass-S (190 kg 10a-1), and Frass-D (380 kg 10a-1).Results: T. molitor frass contained 77.1% organic matter, 4.14% total nitrogen (T-N), 3.29% P2O5, and 2.57% K2O, with all heavy metal concentrations remaining below the limits specified by the Korean fertilizer standards. Both frass treatments significantly increased head weight, head height, and the numbers of outer and inner leaves, resulting in yield increases of 6.4% and 5.9%, respectively, compared with the Control. However, there was no different between Frass-S and Frass-D. After cultivation, soil organic matter increased from 16 g kg-1 in the Control to 18 and 20 g kg-1 in the Frass-S and Frass-D treatments, respectively. Exchangeable K and Mg also increased significantly, whereas soil pH, EC, available P2O5, and exchangeable Ca and Na were not significantly affected.Conclusions: T. molitor frass was found to be a safe and effective organic fertilizer resource that improved Chinese cabbage growth and soil fertility. The standard application rate (190 kg 10a-1) appears to be appropriate for Chinese cabbage cultivation. These results suggest that T. molitor frass has considerable potential as a by-product fertilizer for environmentally friendly organic agriculture. Chinese cabbage yield tended to increase with Tenebrio molitor frass application at both 190 and 380 kg 10a-1. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Short communication

    Assessment of soil physical properties under greenhouse cultivation of late-maturing citrus (Citrus spp.) in Gyeongnam Province, Korea
    Mi-Jin Lee, Jin Hyang Son, Hee-Jeong Je, Jae-Young Heo, Sang Woo Choi, Mi Geon Cheon, Young Han Lee
    Purpose: This study was conducted to evaluate the soil physical properties of greenhouse late-maturing citrus orchards in Gyeongnam Province, Korea, focusing on … + READ MORE
    Purpose: This study was conducted to evaluate the soil physical properties of greenhouse late-maturing citrus orchards in Gyeongnam Province, Korea, focusing on regional and cultivar-level variations.Methods: A total of 18 representative greenhouse orchards (n = 18) across major late-maturing citrus-producing regions in Gyeongnam Province (Jinju 11, Gimhae 3, Geoje 2, and Hapcheon 2) and different cultivars (Redhyang 13 and Cheonhyehyang 5) were investigated. Soil physical parameters including ridge height, plowing depth, bulk density, porosity, liquid phase, sand, silt, and hardness and organic matter content were analyzed in both topsoil and subsoil.Results: In greenhouse late-maturing citrus orchards, ridge height increased significantly with increasing plowing depth (P < 0.001), while bulk density in subsoils tended to decrease as organic matter content increased (P < 0.05). The soil liquid phase fraction was significantly higher in Cheonhyehyang cultivation sites compared to Redhyang cultivation sites across both topsoil and subsoil (P < 0.05).Conclusions: These findings provide baseline scientific data for optimizing soil structure, improving aeration and drainage, and establishing sustainable soil management practices for greenhouse late-maturing citrus production in Gyeongnam Province. Soil physical properties under greenhouse cultivation of late-maturing citrus in Gyeongnam Province. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026

  • Review

    Integrated fertilization strategy for climate-smart soil management: A concise review for policy suggestion
    Nuri Baek, Hyun-Jin Park, Seo-Woo Park, Eun-Seo Shin, Tae-Yeon Lee, Jin-Hyeob Kwak, Won-Pyo Park, Seok-In Yun, Woo-Jung Choi
    Purpose: Climate change is accelerating the degradation of soil health, necessitating a shift toward climate-smart soil management that balances food production with … + READ MORE
    Purpose: Climate change is accelerating the degradation of soil health, necessitating a shift toward climate-smart soil management that balances food production with greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation and carbon (C) sequestration. However, current fertilization policies in South Korea remain largely constrained by a nutrient-centric, binary paradigm—prioritizing crop yields through either mineral or organic fertilization—which often overlooks long-term soil health. In this review, we examine the limitations of existing fertilization policies and propose comprehensive strategies to enhance soil health in support of climate-smart agricultural goals.Methods: To bridge the gap between crop-focused fertilization and sustainable soil health, we developed a multi-criteria assessment framework. This framework evaluates both soil health constraints and various fertilizers and amendments—including mineral and organic fertilizers, compost, and biochar—to optimize their use in addressing soil-specific limitations, based on their contributions to nutrient supply, soil property improvement, GHG mitigation, and C sequestration potential.Results: We found that existing fertilization practices often lead to significant nutrient surpluses and the misuse of soil amendments, such as livestock manure compost and biochar. We argue that current strategies, which view these resources primarily as nutrient sources, fail to address the complex requirements of soil health. By synthesizing the distinct functionalities of mineral fertilizers (nutrient supply), organic fertilizers (microbial substrate supply), livestock manure compost (organic matter supply), and biochar (GHG mitigation and C sequestration), we propose a transition from a ‘nutrient-centric’ to a ‘function-centric’ fertilization strategy. This framework shifts the decision-making process from simple crop requirement matching to a site-specific, soil-tailored approach that accounts for inherent soil health constraints and land-use types. Conclusions: This study provides a foundational basis for re-evaluating fertilization policies, advocating for a holistic approach that promotes sustainable soil functionality and aligns South Korean agricultural practices with global climate-smart goals. Integrated soil-specific fertilization strategy for climate-smart soil health management. - COLLAPSE
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    31 August 2026
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