All Issue

2026 Vol.59, Issue 3 Preview Page

Original research article

Effects of deep fertilization placement on N2O emissions, nitrogen leaching and soybean productivity
Seong Min Moon12
,
Dong Hyeok Gong3
,
Jin Hee Seo3
,
Man Soo Choi4
,
Jong Su Ryu4
,
Min Su Jeong5
,
Yoon Ha Kim6
,
Jong Hwan Park7*
,
Hyen Chung Chun4*
1Doctoral Student, Crop Production Technology Research Division, National Institute of Crop Science, RDA, Miryang 50424, Korea
2Doctoral Student, Department of Applied Bioscience, Donga University, Pusan 49315, Korea
3Researcher, Crop Production Technology Research Division, National Institute of Crop Science, RDA, Miryang 50424, Korea
4Senior Researcher, Crop Production Technology Research Division, National Institute of Crop Science, RDA, Miryang 50424, Korea
5Doctoral Student, Department of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
6Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
7Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Bioscience, Donga University, Pusan 49315, Korea
*Corresponding Author
31 August 2026. pp. 261-277
PDF XML Citation
Abstract

Purpose: Crops growth in upland fields converted from previously used as rice paddies is often limited by poor drainage, which decreases nitrogen (N) fertilizer use efficiency due to increased nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Deep fertilizer placement is well established as a strategy to promote root growth and yield and reduce N2Oemissions. However, its effects on paddy-to-upland converted soils remain unknown. This study investigated the effects of the deep placement of inorganic fertilizer and organic mixtures (compost and biochar) on soybean root development, yield, N leaching, and N2O emissions in paddy-to-upland converted soils.

Methods: Soil-plant column experiments with four treatments were established based on placement depth of fertilizer and organic mixture: Surface Inorganic and Surface Organic (SISO); Deep Inorganic (10 cm) and Deep Organic (20 cm) (DIDO), Surface Organic and Deep Inorganic (20 cm) (SODI), and Surface Inorganic and Deep Organic (20 cm) (SIDO). Each treatment had ten replicates, and soybeans were cultivated. During the experiment, N2O emissions and N leaching were measured, and soybean roots and yields were determined at the harvest.

Results: Soybean root development was most pronounced in DIDO treatment, which showed significantly greater root length, volume, and surface area than the other treatments, resulting in the greatest soybean growth and yield. Nitrogen leaching amounts did not differ among the treatments. However, N leaching relative rate was greatest in SODI (by 60.4%), while DIDO had smaller one (12%). Cumulative N2O emissions were significantly affected by placement depth, with the greatest emissions in SISO and the smallest in DIDO.

Conclusions: These results indicate that placing both organic and inorganic nutrient sources deep in the soil profile enhances root development and yield while simultaneously reducing nitrogen loss and N2O emissions, offering an effective management strategy for soybean cultivation in paddy-converted soils.

Effects of the placement depths of organic and inorganic fertilizers on nitrogen losses and soybean performance in converted paddy soil.
Keywords
Biochar
Compost
Deep placement
Nitrogen leaching
Nitrous oxide
Soybean
References
1

Blanco-Canqui H. 2017. Biochar and soil physical properties. soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 82:1-17. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2017.01.0017

10.2136/sssaj2017.01.0017
2

Butterbach-Bahl K, Baggs EM, Dannenmann M, Kiese R, Zechmeister-Boltenstern S. 2013. Nitrous oxide emissions from soils: How well do we understand the processes and their controls? Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 368:20130122. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0122

10.1098/rstb.2013.012223713120PMC3682742
3

Cao Y, He Z, Zhu T, Zhao F. 2021. Organic-C quality as a key driver of microbial nitrogen immobilization in soil: A meta-analysis. Geoderma. 383:114784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114784

10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114784
4

Cayuela ML, van Zwieten L, Singh BP, Jeffery S, Roig A, Sánchez-Monedero MA. 2014. Biochar’s role in mitigating soil nitrous oxide emissions: a review and meta-analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 191:5-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.10.009

10.1016/j.agee.2013.10.009
5

Chen G, Cai T, Wang J, Wang Y, Ren L, Wu P, Zhang P, Jia Z. 2022. Suitable fertilizer application depth enhances the efficient utilization of key resources and improves crop productivity in rainfed farmland on the Loess Plateau, China. Front. Plant Sci. 13:900352. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.900352

10.3389/fpls.2022.90035235734260PMC9208331
6

Chen H, Liao Q, Liao Y. 2021. Response of area- and yield-scaled N2O emissions from croplands to deep fertilization: a meta-analysis of soil, climate, and management factors. J. Sci. Food Agric. 101:4653-4661. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.11108

10.1002/jsfa.11108
7

Chien SH, Prochnow LI, Cantarella H. 2009. Chapter 8 Recent developments of fertilizer production and use to improve nutrient efficiency and minimize environmental impacts. Adv. Agron. 102:267-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(09)01008-6

10.1016/S0065-2113(09)01008-6
8

Cho JY, Yoon YE, Choe H, Godagedara LT, Lee KA, Kim SC, Kim YN, Lee YB. 2024. Influences of continuous wood-derived biochar application on soil chemical properties and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) yield. Korean J. Soil Sci. Fert. 57:96-105. https://doi.org/10.7745/KJSSF.2024.57.2.096

10.7745/KJSSF.2024.57.2.096
9

Clough TJ, Jarvis SC, Dixon ER, Stevens RJ, Laughlin RJ, Hatch DJ. 1999. Carbon induced subsoil denitrification of 15N-labelled nitrate in 1 m deep soil columns. Soil Biol. Biochem. 31:31-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(98)00097-2

10.1016/S0038-0717(98)00097-2
10

Gaurav S, Diptanu B, Mehta CM, Prasann K, Nishihara E, Inubushi K, Sudo S, Hayashida S, Patra PK, Minkina T et al. 2025. Effects of biochar amendment at various soil depths on maize roots and growth indices. Sci. Rep. 15:26310. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-09218-1

10.1038/s41598-025-09218-140685387PMC12277442
11

Hall DJM, Edwards TJ. 2025. Trenching and compost sustain grain yield increases over nine years on deep sands but at a cost. Soil Res. 63:SR24221. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR24221.

10.1071/SR24221
12

Hansel, FD., Amado, TJC., Ruiz Diaz, DA., Rosso, LHM., Nicoloso, FT., Schorr, M. 2017. Phosphorus fertilizer placement and tillage affect soybean root growth and drought tolerance. Agronomy, 109:2936-2944. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2017.04.0202

10.2134/agronj2017.04.0202
13

Havlin JL, Tisdale SL, Nelson WL, Beaton JD. 2014. Soil fertility and fertilizers: An introduction to nutrient management (8th ed.) Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA.

14

Hayakawa A, Akiyama H, Sudo S, Yagi K. 2009. N2O and NO emissions from an Andisol field as influenced by pelleted poultry manure. Soil Biol. Biochem. 41:521-529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.12.011

10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.12.011
15

Hou K, Huang Y, Rong X, Peng J, Tian C, Han Y. 2021. The effects of the depth of fertilization on losses of nitrogen and phosphorus and soil fertility in the red paddy soil of China. PeerJ. 9:e11347. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11347

10.7717/peerj.1134734046257PMC8139273
16

Hu Z, Zhao Q, Zhang X, Ning X, Liang H, Cao W. 2023. Winter green manure decreases subsoil nitrate accumulation and increases N use efficiencies of maize production in North China Plain. Plants. 12:311. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12020311

10.3390/plants1202031136679024PMC9866620
17

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2021. Climate change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pirani A, Connors SL, Péan C, Berger S, et al. (Eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896

10.1017/9781009157896
18

Jiang C, Lu D, Zu C, Zhou J, Wang H. 2018. Root-zone fertilization improves crop yields and minimizes nitrogen loss in summer maize in China. Sci. Rep. 8:15139. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-33591-9

10.1038/s41598-018-33591-930310155PMC6181941
19

Jung KY, Yun ES, Park CY, Hwang JB, Choi YD, Park KD. 2011. Stress day index to predict soybean yield response by subsurface drainage in poorly drained sloping paddy fields. Korean J. Soil Sci. Fert. 44:702-708. https://doi.org/10.7745/KJSSF.2011.44.5.702

10.7745/KJSSF.2011.44.5.702
20

Kim DG, Giltrap D, Sapkota TB. 2023a. Understanding response of yield-scaled N2O emissions to nitrogen input: Data synthesis and introducing new concepts of background yield-scaled N2O emissions and N2O emission-yield curve. Field Crops Res. 290:108737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108737

10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108737
21

Kim YS, Kim KH, Huh YS, Kim MJ, Kim IJ. 2023b. Effect of ridge height on peanut growth and soil physicochemical properties of in paddy field. Korean J. Soil Sci. Fert. 56:1-11. https://doi.org/10.7745/KJSSF.2023.56.1.001

10.7745/KJSSF.2023.56.1.001
22

KRC (Korea Rural Community Corporation). 2004. Standard for agricultural infrastructure improvement project design (Drainage). Agriculture and Forestry, Gwacheon, Korea.

23

Kuypers MMM, Marchant HK, Kartal B. 2018. The microbial nitrogen-cycling network. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 16:263-276. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro.2018.9

10.1038/nrmicro.2018.9
24

Lee JM, Lee WJ, Yeob SJ, Choi SK, Jun SM, Eo J. 2025. Effects of fertilizer deep placement on weed suppression and maize growth in different soil textures. Korean J. Soil Sci. Fert. 58(4):536-548. https://doi.org/10.7745/KJSSF.2025.58.4.536

10.7745/KJSSF.2025.58.4.536
25

Lehmann J, Kern DC, Glaser B, Woods WI. (eds.) 2003. Amazonian dark earths: origin, properties, management. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-2597-1

10.1007/1-4020-2597-1
26

Liu TQ, Fan DJ, Zhang XX, Chen J, Li CF, Cao CG. 2015. Deep placement of nitrogen fertilizers reduces ammonia volatilization and increases nitrogen utilization efficiency in no-tillage paddy fields in central China. Field Crops Res. 184:80-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2015.09.011

10.1016/j.fcr.2015.09.011
27

Lotfollahi M, Alston AM, McDonald GK. 1997. Effect of nitrogen fertiliser placement on grain protein concentration of wheat under different water regimes. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 48:241-250. https://doi.org/10.1071/A96066

10.1071/A96066
28

Maier M, Weber TKD, Fiedler J, Fuß R, Glatzel S, Huth V, Jordan S, Jurasinski G, Kutzbach L, Schäfer K, et al. 2022. Introduction of a guideline for measurements of greenhouse gas fluxes from soils using non-steady-state chambers. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 185:447-461. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.202200199

10.1002/jpln.202200199
29

Miah MAM, Gaihre YK, Hunter G, Singh U, Hossain SA. 2016. Fertilizer deep placement increases rice production: Evidence from farmers’ fields in southern Bangladesh. Agron. J. 108:805-812. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2015.0170.

10.2134/agronj2015.0170
30

Millington RJ, Quirk JP. 1961. Permeability of porous solids. Trans. Faraday Soc. 57:1200-1207. https://doi.org/10.1039/tf9615701200

10.1039/tf9615701200
31

NAS (National Institute of Agricultural Sciences). 2022. Fertilizer application recommendations for crops. RDA, Wanju, Korea.

32

NIAST (National Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology). 2000. Methods of soil and plant analysis. RDA, Suwon, Korea.

33

Niedziński T, Rutkowska B, Łabętowicz J, Szulc W. 2023. Effect of deep placement fertilization on the distribution of biomass, nutrients, and root system development in potato plants. Plants. 12:1880. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12091880

10.3390/plants1209188037176938PMC10180890
34

Nkebiwe PM, Weinmann M, Bar-Tal A, Müller T. 2016. Fertilizer placement to improve crop nutrient acquisition and yield: A review and meta-analysis. Field Crops Res. 196:389-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2016.07.018.

10.1016/j.fcr.2016.07.018
35

Pansu M, Thuriès L. 2003. Kinetics of C and N mineralization, N immobilization and N volatilization of organic inputs in soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 35:37-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(02)00234-1.

10.1016/S0038-0717(02)00234-1
36

Park JH, Kang SW, Yun JJ, Lee SG, Kim SH, Baek JS, Cho JS. 2021. Effects of co-application of biochars and composts on lettuce growth. Korean J. Soil Sci. Fert. 54(2):151-160. https://doi.org/10.7745/KJSSF.2021.54.2.151.

10.7745/KJSSF.2021.54.2.151
37

Park MC, Park YH, Kim HS, Baik MY, Kim BY. 2016. Characteristics and optimal mixing ratio of tofu ice cream made with crushed tofu and soy milk. Food Eng. Prog. 20:158-164. https://doi.org/10.13050/foodengprog.2016.20.2.158.

10.13050/foodengprog.2016.20.2.158
38

Parkin TB, Venterea RT. 2010. Chamber-based trace gas flux measurements. In Follett RF (ed). USDA-ARS GRACEnet project protocols: sampling protocols. USDA-ARS, Washington, DC, USA. pp 3-1-3-39.

39

Ramos FT, de Carvalho Dores EFG, Weber OLS, Beber DC, Campelo Jr JH, de Souza Maia JC. 2018. Soil organic matter doubles the cation exchange capacity of tropical soil under no-till farming in Brazil. J. Sci. Food Agric. 98:3595-3602. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8881

10.1002/jsfa.8881
40

RDA (Rural Development Administration). 2012. Analysis standard for research in agricultural science and technology (5th ed.). RDA, Suwon, Korea.

41

RDA (Rural Development Administration). 2021. Establishment and Designation of Official Specifications for Fertilizers (RDA Notice No. 2021-18). Jeonju, Korea.

42

Rychel V, Meurer KHE, Börjesson G, Strömgren M, Getahun GT, Kirchmann H, Kätterer T. 2020. Deep N fertilizer placement mitigated N2O emissions in a Swedish field trial with cereals. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 118:133-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-020-10089-3

10.1007/s10705-020-10089-3
43

Rychel V, Meurer KHE, Getahun GT, Bergström L, Kirchmann H, Kätterer T. 2023. Lysimeter deep N fertilizer placement reduced leaching and improved N use efficiency. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 126:213-228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-023-10286-w

10.1007/s10705-023-10286-w
44

Seung JH, Lee DS, Yim HJ, Kim HJ. 2024. A study on improving grain policy for strengthening food security. Research Report R999. Korea Rural Economic Institute, Naju, Korea. https://repository.krei.re.kr/bitstream/2018.oak/31095/1/R999.pdf

45

Shcherbak I, Millar N, Robertson GP. 2014. Global metaanalysis of the nonlinear response of soil nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions to fertilizer nitrogen. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 111:9199-9204. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322434111

10.1073/pnas.132243411124927583PMC4078848
46

Statistics Korea. 2025. Results of the 2024 cultivated area survey. https://www.kostat.go.kr/board.es?act=view&bid=229&list_no=435196&mid=a10301010000. (accessed on May 25, 2026).

47

Takahashi Y, Ohyama T. 1999. Technique for deep placement of coated urea fertilizer in soybean cultivation. JARQ. 33:235-242. https://www.jircas.go.jp/sites/default/files/publication/jarq/33-4-235-242_0.pdf

48

Tian H, Xu R, Canadell JG, Thompson RL, Winiwarter W, Suntharalingam P, Davidson EA, Ciais P, Jackson RB, Janssens-Maenhout G, et al. 2020. A comprehensive quantification of global nitrous oxide sources and sinks. Nature. 586:248-256. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2780-0

10.1038/s41586-020-2780-0
49

Van Groenigen JW, Velthof GL, Oenema O, Van Groenigen KJ, Van Kessel C. 2010. Towards an agronomic assessment of N2O emissions: a case study for arable crops. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 61:903-913. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2009.01217.x

10.1111/j.1365-2389.2009.01217.x
50

Van Kessel C, Venterea R, Six J, Adviento-Borbe MA, Linquist B, Van Groenigen KJ. 2013. Climate, duration, and N placement determine N2O emissions in reduced tillage systems: a meta-analysis. Glob. Change Biol. 19:33-44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02779.x

10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02779.x
51

Wang Y, Liu Y, Xia L, Akiyama H, Chen X, Chen J, Fang Y, Vancov T, Li Y, Yao Y et al. 2025. Accounting for differences between crops and regions reduces estimates of nitrate leaching from nitrogen-fertilized soils. Commun. Earth Environ. 6:29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02001-0

10.1038/s43247-025-02001-0
52

Wei Z, Hoffland E, Zhuang M, Hellegers P, Cui Z. 2021. Organic inputs to reduce nitrogen export via leaching and runoff: A global meta-analysis. Environ. Pollut. 291:118176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118176

10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118176
53

Wu M, Li G, Li W, Liu J, Liu M, Jiang C, Li Z. 2017. Nitrogen fertilizer deep placement for increased grain yield and nitrogen recovery efficiency in rice grown in subtropical China. Front. Plant Sci. 8:1227. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01227

10.3389/fpls.2017.0122728744302PMC5504192
54

Wu P, Chen G, Liu F, Cai T, Zhang P, Jia Z. 2021a. How does deep-band fertilizer placement reduce N2O emissions and increase maize yields? Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 322:107672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2021.107672

10.1016/j.agee.2021.107672
55

Wu P, Huang H, Zhang N, Liu J, Cai T, Jia Z, Chen J, Liu E, Wang C, Gao Z et al. 2026. Global meta-analysis and machine learning show that deep fertilization produces more grain with lower environmental costs, especially in lower latitude areas. Field Crops Res. 337:110267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110267

10.1016/j.fcr.2025.110267
56

Wu P, Wu X, Tigabu M, Wang D, Guo X, Guo F, Meng Y, Ma X. 2021b. Suitable fertilizer application depth can increase nitrogen use efficiency and maize yield. Sci. Total Environ. 781:147304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146787

10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146787
57

Wu Z, Chen X, Lu X, Zhu Y, Han X, Yan J, Yan L, Zou W. 2025. Impact of combined organic amendments and chemical fertilizers on soil microbial limitations, soil quality, and soybean yield. Plant Soil. 507:317-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-024-06733-4

10.1007/s11104-024-06733-4
58

Yamazaki K, Arai Y, Uddin MN, Kyozuka J, Kamiya T, Fujiwara T. 2026. OsAux1 is required for nutritropism in rice roots. Plant J. 125:e70779. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.70779

10.1111/tpj.7077941797622PMC12968981
59

Yang S, Wang Y, Liu R, Zhang A, Yang Z. 2017. Effect of nitrate leaching caused by swine manure application in fields of the Yellow River irrigation zone of Ningxia, China. Sci. Rep. 7:13693. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-12953-9

10.1038/s41598-017-12953-929057890PMC5651933
60

Yu CJ, Um JB, Ko HS, Park SY. 2020. Profitability analysis based on cropping system of the land use changes in paddy field. J. Korea Acad. Ind. Coop. Soc. 21:216-222. https://doi.org/10.5762/KAIS.2020.21.1.216

10.5762/KAIS.2020.21.1.216
Information
  • Publisher :Korean Society of Soil Science and Fertilizer
  • Publisher(Ko) :한국토양비료학회
  • Journal Title :Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
  • Journal Title(Ko) :한국토양비료학회 학회지
  • Volume : 59
  • No :3
  • Pages :261-277
  • Received Date : 2026-06-29
  • Revised Date : 2026-08-24
  • Accepted Date : 2026-08-25
  • DOI :https://doi.org/10.7745/KJSSF.2026.59.3.261
Journal Informaiton Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
KJSSF Online Submission
  • NRF
  • KOFST
  • crossref crossmark
  • crossref cited-by
  • crosscheck
  • orcid
  • open access
  • ccl
Journal Informaiton Journal Informaiton - close